In-Group Bias

Overall Gender Bias

Perception On Sex Differences

  • A study by Eagly et al. (1989) determined that attitudes and stereotypes towards women tended to more positive than those towards men.
  • A study by Eagly et al. (1991) found that the evaluations of women were more favorable than that of men, amongst both male as well as female respondents.
  • A study by Winegard et al. (2019) found that people tend to have a stronger desire to censor science that disfavors women.
  • A study by Eagly et al. (2019) looking at public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018 found that more people believe that women are superior to men than vice versa.
  • A paper by Stewart-Williams et al. (2020) gave people of both sexes some fake papers on sex differences to review, some which favored males and others which favored females. In a sample from both the West and a pre-registered sample from South East Asia, it was discovered that both males and females reacted more positively to the papers that showed differences favored females. Females had expected males to show a bias towards males, but that was not the case.

On Gender Gaps

  • A paper by Browne (2013) found for statistical disparities Ones that are perceived as favoring men are labeled “gaps,” while those that favor women are simply facts.
  • A study by Block et al. (2019) found that people are overwhelmingly more likely to support social action to correct female underrepresentation over male underrepresentation.
  • A large scale distributive experiment by Cappelen et al. (2019) done on over 5,000 Americans fond that people tend to be singificantly biased against low-performing males than females.

Media Representation

  • Naylor (2001) found in analysis of all reports of violences in 4 national British newspaper over 6 months that newspapers tended to have a preference for reporting violence against women over violence against men.
    • The dominant explanations of women's violence was about emotion, madness, and irrationality. Whereas men's voilence was presented as more rationla or instrumental, with a "fiend/monster" narratiev.
  • Macnamara (2006) found that by volume that the mass media reporting and commentary on men was: 69% unfavorable, 12% favorable, and 19% neutral or balanced."
  • 75% of the coverage on men portrayed them as villains, aggressors, perverts, and philanderers.
  • Whitley et al. (2015) found in analysis of 1168 newspaper articles related to mental health over 6 months, that articles depicted men were more likely to be stigmatizing and have violence as themes, whereas those depicting women were more likely to quote mental health experts, discuss mental health interventions, and have recovery and inadequate resources as themes.

Bias in Day to Day Lives

  • A study by Kessler et al. (2014) found that boys who moved into more affluent neighbors reported higher rates of depression, conduct disorders, PTSD, and panic disorders than girls.
    • It was inferred this might be due to boys being more likely to be seen as juvenile delinquents whereas girls being seen more likely to be poor ,disadvantages, and in need of help.

Male Disposability

Willingness to Harm

  • A study by Trémolière et al. (2015) found that 60% of males are willing to sacrifice 3 men to save the life of 1 woman, whereas 37% of women are willing to do the same.
  • A study by Feldmanhall et al. (2016) found that people are over 60 times more likely to say they would save a women from a sinking ship first over a man and would push a male over a female onto the train tracks 88% of the time rather than the other way around.
  • A study by Dolinski et al. (2017), with a smaller sample size however, found that people were around 3 times sa likely to deliver severe electric shocks to men than women.
  • A study by Spears et al. (2018) found that women, especially feminist women, are more likely to show willingness to sacrifice men in a Moral Choice Dilemma Task.
  • A study done by Awad et al. (2019) found from an online survey from over 2 million participants from 233 countries and territories, people preferred sparing the lives of females over that of males by an effect size of about ~0.15-0.20d.

Disparity in Crime Sentencing

  • A study by Glaeser et al. (2000) found that for vehicular homicides, drivers killing women tend to get 56% longer sentences than those who kill men. Another study by Glaeser et al. 2003 found drivers who kill women get 59% longer sentencing. This is constant even after controlling all the relevant variables for the homicide.
  • A study by Curry et al. (2004) found criminals victimizing females received vastly longer punishment than thsoe who victimized maleseven after controlling all the relevant variables.
  • A study by Gillespie et al. (2013) exploring the intersection of victim sex and victim conduct and victim-defendant relationship utilizing a population of North Carolina capital cases spanning 1977 ro 2009 (N=1,285).
    • The findings indicate that cases with a female victim who was not involved in illegal activity at the time of the murder and acquaintance female victim cases are most likely to result in a death recommendation even after controlling for the relevant factors.
  • A study by Williams et al. (2007) analyzed data from the U.S. state of Georgia's death penalty that victim gender and race are associated with death sentencing outcomes.
    • Considerable differences in the likelihood of receiving a death sentence between the most disparate victim race–gender groups.
    • Crimes involving male victims given more leniency than those
  • A study by Holcomb et al. (2004) found that after controlling for all legally relevant factors, pereptrators of female homicide were significiantly more likely to get the death penalty over who those who killed black males. Effect was significant even after controlling for race.
  • A study by Holcomb et al. (2006) found that homicides with white female victims wwere more likely to result in death sentences than other victim race-gender dyads.
  • A study by Williams et al. (2007) found killing a white woman is 14.5 times more likely to result in a death penalty than killing a black men even after controlling for all legally and extralegally relevant factors.
    • Effect was significant even after controlling for race, indicating gender plays a massive role.
  • A study by Sommers (2016) determined that the media was way more likely to focus on missing females over missing females, dubbing it the "Missing Wihte Woman Syndrome".
  • A meta-analysis by Reynolds et al. (2019) found that multiple studies on moral typecasting have found that victims were generally assumed to be female and perpetrators males, leading to a desire for harsher punishment for male than female perpetrators.

Willingness to help

  • A meta-analysis of 172 studies by Eagly et al. (1986) found women are both more likely to be seen in need of help and to receive it.
    • The sexism was even larger when the subjects believe they were being watched, which indicates this could also be a result of social pressure rather than just intrinsic instinct.

Harm Perception

  • A study by Seelau et al. (2005) found that victim sex rather than the sexual oreintation was seen as the most potent predictor of responses and male on female violence was considered the most serious and serving of active intervention.
    • Domestic violence prepetrated by men or against women was judged more seriously than violence perpetrated by women or against men.
    • Perceptions that male perpetrators were more capable of injuring victims and female victims more likely to suffer serious injuries were consistent with stereotypes.
  • A study by Walker (2007) found that on average motorists left considerably more space when passing the rider when he gave the impression of being females. The difference in mean awas over 14 cm and it was found to be statistically singificant.
    • Motorcists care less about injuring males than females..
  • A study by Felson et al. (2009) found that respondents were more likely to condemn men's assaults on women and also favor reporting them.
    • This was said to reflect the greater moral condementation of men's assualts on women and also the belief that victims of these assaults are in greater danger.
  • A cross-section and longitudinal study of adolescents by Stuijfzand et al. (2016) found female targers received more affective empathy and empathetic sadness over similarly situated male targets.

General Bias against Boys' Existence

  • Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2003): Research from the U.S. found that 80% of the parents wanting gender selection are looking for a girl.
  • A study done by Baccara et al. (2010) with a team of economists from Caltech, NYU, and LSE found that African-American babies and boys were singificantly less likely to be adopted.
    • Amongst non African American babies, girls had a 11.5% chance of adopted as compared to 7.9% for boys, about 1.45 times as likely.
  • Child Maltreatment Report (2023) by CDC found that boys made up 58.7 percent of child fatalities.
  • CDC Wonder (2023) Regarding homocide of children:
    • Less than 1: 1.4 times as many boys killed as compared to girls
    • Aged 1 to 4: 1.2 times as many boys killed as compared to girls
    • Aged 5 to 9, 1.49 times as many boys killed as compared to girls
    • Aged 10 to 14, 2.58 times as many boys killed as compared to girls